Xenophon's narrative also offers a unique insight into the character of a Greek army on the march. Xenophon describes Dercylidas as a significantly more experienced commander than Thimbron. The mercenaries, known as the Ten Thousand, found themselves without leadership far from the sea, deep in hostile territory near the heart of Mesopotamia, with a hostile population and armies to deal with. His output was formally variedthe main categories were long historical or ostensibly historical narratives, Socratic texts, and short technical, biographical, or political treatisesbut these had common features, as enumerated below. Xenophon himself mentions the circumstances A freelance writer and former part-time Professor of Philosophy at Marist College, New York, Joshua J. After facing the court at Sparta, Thimbron is banished. Winter by now arrived as the Greeks marched through Armenia "absolutely unprovided with clothing suitable for such weather",[17] inflicting more casualties than they suffered during a skillful ambush of a local satrap's force and the flanking of another force in this period. Transactions of the American Philological Association. Xenophon was born in Athens in about 430 bc. He is known for his writings on the history of his own times, preserving the sayings of Socrates, and the life of ancient Greece. Olympic victor: Paus. (In Anabasis, Book V, there is a well-known description of this sacred estate and of the annual quasi-civic festival celebrated there.) Paus. Gaius Stertinius Xenophon - Wikipedia "Xenophon's (The Education of Cyrus) and Ideal Leadership Lessons for Modern Public Administration." In 394 BC, Agesilaus' army returned to Greece taking the route of the Persian invasion eighty years earlier and fought in the Battle of Coronea. This page was last edited on 25 June 2023, at 07:25. Instead of asking the direct question of "should I go? The Socrates of both Plato and Xenophon reflect the authors' own values, concerns, and upbringing. An Introduction to the Work of Xenohon - Xenophon The persistence and skill of the Greek soldiers were used by proponents of Panhellenism as proof that the Persians were vulnerable. The Persian army retreated to Tralles and the Greeks to Leucophrys. An example of Socrates' practical advice is given by Xenophon in Anabasis 3.I.5-7 when he discusses the invitation to join the expedition in support of Cyrus the Younger. "Persians as Centaurs in Xenophon's Cyropaedia'". One can still see something of Plato's philosopher in Xenophon's depiction, but the two are hardly identical. Examples of this include the wedding of the Lapiths, Gigantomachy, Trojan War, and Amazonomachy on the Parthenon frieze. Xenophon's Anabasis recounts his adventures with the Ten Thousand while in the service of Cyrus the Younger, Cyrus's failed campaign to claim the Persian throne from Artaxerxes II of Persia, and the return of Greek mercenaries after Cyrus's death in the Battle of Cunaxa. Like Socrates and other students of Socrates (Plato, Alcibiades, Critias), Xenophon took a keen interest in political philosophy[25] and his work often examines leadership. Life and Times Xenophon was born during the early years of the Peloponnesian War, in the outlying deme of Athens called Erchia. 4164. Filled with a plethora of originality and tactical genius, Xenophon's conduct of the retreat caused Dodge to name the Athenian knight the greatest general that preceded Alexander the Great.[20]. By this example Xenophon sought to show that empires lacked stability and could only be maintained by a person of remarkable prowess, such as Cyrus. 05 Jul 2023. The two writers seem more concerned about answering questions that arose after the trial than about the actual charges. Please note that some of these recommendations are listed under our old name, Ancient History Encyclopedia. Vol. Xenophon asked Socrates' advice on whether he should join the mercenaries, and Socrates sent him to ask the question of the Oracle at Delphi. World History Encyclopedia. 2003. Last modified September 27, 2022. [30] It has been conjectured that this was Cyrus's first wife, which lends credibility to the Cyropaedia's statement (8.5.19) that Cyaxares II gave his daughter in marriage to Cyrus soon (but not immediately) after the fall of the city, with the kingdom of Media as her dowry. Judged in antiquity to be plain, sweet, persuasive, graceful, poetic, and a model of Attic purity, it now strikes some as jejune. There were three factors in Xenophon's life that likely led to him becoming the celebrated creator of dressage (or at least the first person to write about it). For only $5 per month you can become a member and support our mission to engage people with cultural heritage and to improve history education worldwide. From the Greek word "xenos" meaning foreign/strange and the word elment "phone/phone" meaning voice. Herodotus says that Cyrus led a rebellion against his maternal grandfather, Astyages king of Media, and defeated him, thereafter (improbably) keeping Astyages in his court for the remainder of his life (Histories 1.130). Xenophon was born in Ercheia, a rural district outside of Athens; his father, Gryllus, was probably an upper-class Athenian citizen. Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. Dodge says of Xenophon's generalship, "Xenophon is the father of the system of retreat, the originator of all that appertains to the science of rear-guard fighting. Rex Warner was a Professor at the University of Connecticut. 6.3.13. When the Persian cavalry arrived the next day, now firing within several yards, Xenophon suddenly unleashed his new cavalry in a shock charge, smashing into the stunned and confused enemy, killing many and routing the rest. They elected new leaders, including Xenophon himself. Paul Woodruff Chapter Get access Share Cite Summary The "Old Oligarch" is the name commonly given by modern scholars to the author of this anonymous treatise on the government of Athens, which was preserved among the writings of the Athenian historian and thinker, Xenophon (born c. 430). In his early years he was a pupil of Socrates. Cyropaedia: What Did Xenophon Write About Cyrus the Great? - TheCollector He was educated according to the model of any other upper-class Athenian youth and given training in martial arts and horsemanship as befitting a member of the Equestrian class. Every day, these cavalry, finding no opposition from the Ten Thousand, moved cautiously closer and closer. Xenophon (Ancient Greek , Modern Greek ; ca. Many homotmoi found this unfair because their military training was no better than the commoners, only their education, and hand-to-hand combat was less a matter of skill than strength and bravery. Both Plato and Xenophon wrote an Apology concerning the death of Socrates. However, Clearchus, a Spartan general, convinced the Greeks to continue with the expedition. Xenophon was born in 430 BCE (though some scholars favor a later date of sometime in the 420s) in Erchia, a suburb of Athens. Agesilaus marched back from Ionia to deal with this situation and met the coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes at the Battle of Coronea in 394 BCE. Reading Xenophon's Memorabilia inspired Zeno of Citium to change his life and start the Stoic school of philosophy. They endured daily hardships on their way home including enemy attacks, lack of provisions, snowstorms, and the constant threat of betrayal by the local guides they were forced to trust. In his Lives of Eminent Philosophers, the Greek biographer Diogenes Lartius (who writes many centuries later) reports how Xenophon met Socrates. This was among the first attacks in depth ever made, 23 years after Delium and 30 years before Epaminondas' more famous use of it at Leuctra. World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization. During his years there, Xenophon served as Spartas representative at Olympia, and he sent his sons to Sparta for their education. He served with the Greek mercenaries of the Persian prince Cyrus, an experience on which he based his best-known work, the Anabasis. He was a pupil of Socrates and became a general during the Persian wars. 355 B.C.) The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike. Biography - Xenophon In post-Renaissance Europe Xenophon continued to be highly valued as long as the valuation by antiquity retained its authority. For the full article, see, https://www.britannica.com/summary/Xenophon. Xenophon's query to the oracle, however, was not whether or not to accept Cyrus' invitation, but "to which of the gods he must pray and do sacrifice, so that he might best accomplish his intended journey and return in safety, with good fortune". Related Content We see at first hand the soldiers at leisure, holding athletic competitions amongst themselves. At his farm in Scillus, he wrote Anabasis, the Socratic works, and others, and it seems to have been the most peaceful and comfortable time of his life. Socrates - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy These works were probably written by Xenophon when he was living in Scillus. Xenophon - Ancient Greece His works were widely edited and translated, and the environment was one in which, for example, the esteem in which Cyropaedia had been held by Romans such as Scipio Aemilianus found an echo. Initially, Xenophon and his men had been fighting as mercenaries in the Spartan army, but under Dercylidas, they had been commissioned as soldiers so that, by the time Agesilaus arrived, Xenophon, an Athenian, was an officer in the army of Athens' old rival. Updates? In 371 BC, after the Battle of Leuctra, Elians confiscated Xenophon's estate and, according to Diogenes Lartius, Xenophon moved to Corinth. Cite This Work Xenophon c. 430 B.C.-c. 354 B.C. son of Menephylus, Olympic victor: Paus. Photius (Biblioth. Anabasis (translated as Up Country, The Expedition of Cyrus, The March Up Country, or March of the Ten Thousand) is Xenophon's narrative of the 401 BCE expedition in support of the Persian prince Cyrus the Younger against Cyrus' brother Artaxerxes II (r. 404-358 BCE) for control of the Achaemenid Empire (c. 550-330 BCE). [8] But when I considered the institutions of the Spartans, I wondered no longer.[33]. Xenophon approached manhood during the last turbulent years of the Peloponnesian War (431-404), in which he himself took part as a cavalryman; and perhaps he was also present at the sea battle of Arginusae (406). That Xenophon was able to acquire the means of feeding his force in the heart of a vast empire with a hostile population was astonishing. The opening line reads: It occurred to me one day that Sparta, though among the most thinly populated of states, was evidently the most powerful and most celebrated city in Greece; and I fell to wondering how this could have happened. Although he was later widely admired as a writer, Xenophon initially won fame as a soldier and, especially, as one of the commanders who led the Ten Thousand Greek mercenaries back to Greece through hostile territory, constant hardship, and daily threats. Anabasis, by Xenophon - Project Gutenberg Despite effective fighting by the Greeks, Cyrus was killed in the battle (Anabasis 1.8.271.9.1). For at least two millennia, Xenophon's many talents fueled the debate of whether to place Xenophon with generals, historians or philosophers. Therefore, what we know about them comes exclusively from outsiders such as Xenophon. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). says that Xenophon was also a pupil of Isocrates, which may be true, though Isocrates was younger than Xenophon, being born in B. C. 436. Another passage that Johnson cites as criticism of monarchy and empire concerns the devaluation of the homotmoi. And from this time forth, Xenophon became a follower of Socrates. Life His Anabasis has been widely read and admired for centuries. Xenophon (circa 430-354 BCE), also known as Xenophon of Athens, was a student of Socrates, a military and political leader, and a writer on philosophical subjects. Although empire emerges in this case, this is also a sequence of events associated with democracy. [31] However, in the face of overwhelming numbers in a campaign against the Assyrians, Cyrus armed the commoners with similar arms instead of their normal light ranged armament (Cyropaedia 2.1.9). The castle, however, was stationed on a hill surrounded by forest. License. Cyrus' goal was to overthrow his brother and take the throne. In 398 BC, Xenophon was likely a part of the Greek force capturing the city of Lampsacus. The claim that his exile was formally repealed is another case in point, but his Hipparchicus (Cavalry Commander) and Vectigalia (Ways and Means) suggest that Xenophon had a sympathetic interest in Athenss fortunes, and rapprochement is reflected in his sons service in the Athenian cavalry at the second Battle of Mantinea (362). The dialogues representing Socrates as a youth and young man took place, if they took place at all, before Plato was born and when he was a small child. That broader human experience is chiefly characterized in the work by the determination of the Ten Thousand to survive and reach their homes again. Failing to capture Larissa, the Greeks fall back to Caria. 2, pp. & Mensch, P. Xenophon (translated by Robin Waterfield). Laertius, Diogenes & Miller, J. But Steven Hirsch writes, "Yet there are occasions when it can be confirmed from Oriental evidence that Xenophon is correct where Herodotus is wrong or lacks information. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston and New York: 1890. p. 7. Although Laertius is understood as an often-unreliable source, in this he seems to be correct, as Xenophon is mentioned by others as a prolific writer. Witt, Prof. C. The Retreat of the Ten Thousand. In particular, Xenophon and Plato are concerned with the failures of Socrates to defend himself. After capturing Teuthrania and Halisarna, the Greeks led by Thimbron lay siege to Larissa. A short treatise on the Constitution of the Athenians exists that was once thought to be by Xenophon, but which was probably written when Xenophon was about five years old. Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/xenophon/. According to other ancient writers, however, his body was returned to Elis, and he was buried in Scillus. Conversely, while not omitting it completely, Plato worked to temper that arrogance in his own Apology. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. His minister Chrysantas admires the centaurs for their dual nature, but also warns that the dual nature does not allow centaurs to fully enjoy or act as either one of their aspects in full (4.3.1920). Once the Great King had sent into their country an army of 120,000 men, to subdue them, but of all that great host not one had ever seen his home again. The Symposium, by Xenophon - Project Gutenberg It seems that Xenophon wrote his Apology and Memorabilia as defences of his former teacher, and to further the philosophic project, not to present a literal transcript of Socrates' response to the historical charges incurred.[37]. As the name homotmoi ("equal", or "same honours" i.e. Xenophon: Name Meaning, Popularity and Info on BabyNames.com Xenophon's works include a selection of Socratic dialogues; these writings are completely preserved. Corrections? 1. After the battle of Cunaxa the Greek contingent found themselves surrounded by enemies in the heart of the Persian Empire, and . As a young man, Xenophon served first as a common soldier, then as the commander of a group of Greek mercenaries known as "The Ten Thousand." Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms. Against almost overwhelming odds, and with little hope, Xenophon brought the men back in a heroic journey, which has resonated with audiences since it was first published over 2,000 years ago. Xenophon of Athens was a Greek historian, philosopher, and soldier. According to scholar Robin Waterfield: Little is known about Xenophon's early life. Xenophon continued to lead his men until he heard what has become the most famous line from the book, "The Sea! Although the real Xenophon seems to prefer oligarchy over democracy, none of his works so ardently decry democracy as does the Constitution of the Athenians. Xenophon was born around 430 BC, in the deme Erchia of Athens. While it is reported that he tried to emulate Socrates throughout his life, he seems to have done so in his own unique way. World History Encyclopedia. Once there, they helped Seuthes II make himself king of Thrace, before being recruited into the army of the Spartan general Thimbron (whom Xenophon refers to as Thibron). The Achaemenid Empire (c. 550-330 BCE) was the first great Persian World History Encyclopedia is an Amazon Associate and earns a commission on qualifying book purchases. His ethical system contained little that jars in modern terms; but in todays cynical world, the apparent ingenuousness of its expression strikes some as by turns bland and irritating. After his return from the Persian expedition described in the Anabasis, he fought for the Spartan king Agesilaus II (r. 399-358 BCE) as a mercenary against an Athenian coalition and was afterwards exiled from Athens. Xenophon's birth date is uncertain, but most scholars agree that he was born around 430 BC near the city of Athens. ISBN -684-19245-4. PDF Xenophon (c.430c.350 BCE) - Queensborough Community College (Indeed, the manuscript tradition includes Constitution of the Athenians, which is not by Xenophon.) Xenophon describes his life in 401 BC and 400 BC in the memoir Anabasis. [22] The Persians negotiated a temporary truce and the Greek army retired for a winter camp at Byzantium. Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. He facilitated the change from the Thucydidean tradition of history to rhetoric. Centaurs were often thought of as creatures of ill repute, which makes even Cyrus' own advisors wary of the label. He was a pupil of Socrates. The author, often called in English the "Old Oligarch" or Pseudo-Xenophon,[34] detests the democracy of Athens and the poorer classes, but he argues that the Periclean institutions are well designed for their deplorable purposes. In the Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, Diogenes Lartius observed that Xenophon was known as the "Attic Muse" because of the sweetness of his diction. 2003. O'Flannery, Jennifer. His output includes the earliest or earliest surviving examples of the short nonmedical treatise and of autobiographical narrative (Anabasis). More originality in tactics has come from the Anabasis than from any dozen other books. There is an echo of this statement, verifying Xenophon and contradicting Herodotus, in the Harran Stele, a document from the court of Nabonidus. At the time of his own death, Xenophons standingas author of a considerable oeuvre and hero of an adventure nearly five decades old but ideologically vivid in a Greek world defined by its relationship to Persiahad never been higher. Mark, published on 27 September 2022. In labelling Persians as centaurs through the mouth of Cyrus, Xenophon plays upon the popular post-Persian-war propagandistic paradigm of using mythological imagery to represent the Greco-Persian conflict. The Memorabilia, by Xenophon - Project Gutenberg In his early life he was a pupil of Socrates; but the turning point in his career came when he decided to serve in the Greek contingent raised by Cyrus against Artaxerxes in 401. Books Under the pretext of fighting Tissaphernes, the Persian satrap of Ionia, Cyrus assembled a massive army composed of native Persian soldiers, but also a large number of Greeks. Xenophon's father, Gryllus, was a member of a wealthy equestrian family. Roman orator, attorney and teacher of rhetoric Quintilian echoes Cicero in The Orator's Education saying "the Graces themselves seem to have molded his style and the goddess of persuasion sat upon his lips". The Spartans wrote nothing about themselves, or if they did it is lost. The Cyropaedia relates instead that Astyages died and was succeeded by his son Cyaxares II, the maternal uncle of Cyrus (1.5.2). His contemporaries perhaps saw things differently: for them the gods were unproblematic (not that everyone thought the same way about them, but Xenophons terms of reference were readily understood), and his insistence on a moral component to practical and (broadly) political skills may have been distinctive. Xenophons life history before 401 is scantily recorded; at that time, prompted by a Boeotian friend, he left postwar Athens, joined the Greek mercenary army of the Achaemenian prince Cyrus the Younger, and became involved in Cyruss rebellion against his brother, the Persian king Artaxerxes II. Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. Who Was Xenophon? A Guide to Xenophon's Life and Works When a Greek coalition, including Athens, rebelled against Spartan hegemony in mainland Greece, Xenophon fought (at Coronea in 394) for Sparta. Xenophon , (born 431, Attica, Greecedied shortly before 350 bc, Attica), Greek historian. We want people all over the world to learn about history. He was a pupil of Socrates. Rahn, Peter J. [21] The level of detail with which Xenophon describes Thimbron's campaign in Hellenica suggests first hand knowledge. The appeal of the Anabasis rests on Xenophon's power as a storyteller, his ability to maintain suspense, and his careful use of dialogue, but as Waterfield notes, it is also an engaging and accurate historical text: It can be enjoyed in its own right as a gripping narrative that offers a glimpse of Greek soldiers encountering a foreign world hunting gazelle in the desert, stumbling on the almost deserted cities of Nimrud and Nineveh, confronting wild mountain tribes who block their way by rolling rocks down steep slopes, sheltering against the harsh Armenian winter in underground homes while restoring their spirits with the local 'barley wine'. Hellenica mentions the response of the commander of the Ten Thousand (likely Xenophon) "But men of Lacedaemon, we are the same men now as we were last year; but the commander now is one man (Dercylidas), and in the past was another (Thimbron). Xenophon's standing as a political philosopher has been defended in recent times by Leo Strauss, who devoted a considerable part of his philosophic analysis to the works of Xenophon, returning to the high judgment of Xenophon as a thinker expressed by Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury, Michel de Montaigne, Montesquieu, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Johann Joachim Winckelmann, Niccol Machiavelli, Francis Bacon, John Milton, Jonathan Swift, Benjamin Franklin, and John Adams. He was taught by Prodicus, then by Socrates, whose personality and ethical views made a lasting impression. Xenophon was born near the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, which took place from 431 to 405 BCE. This places Socrates in a higher moral position than his prosecutors, a typical Platonic example of absolving "Socrates from blame in every conceivable way. So precise are Xenophon's descriptions of terrain, distances, cities, and weather conditions that the work was used by Alexander the Great as a field guide for his conquest of Persia in 334 BCE. This same practicality is seen throughout Xenophon's masterpiece, the Anabasis. The death of Xenophons son Gryllus there unleashed such a profusion of eulogies that Aristotle later gave the subtitle Gryllus to a dialogue that criticized Isocrates views of rhetoric. Updates? Too prominent to be unscathed by Spartas loss of authority after the Battle of Leuctra (371), Xenophon was expelled from Scillus and is said to have settled in Corinththough here, as elsewhere, the biographical tradition is of debatable authority, since the episode does not appear in Xenophons own writings. Great Captains: A Course of Six Lectures on the Art of War. Mark, J. J. This created a bridge across which Xenophon led his men before the Persians could get to them. As Danzig interprets it, convincing the jury to condemn him even on unconvincing charges would be a rhetorical challenge worthy of the great persuader. Author of. At a period when the Greeks were in desperate need of food, they decided upon attacking a wooden castle known to have had storage. We do know, however, that [he] was among the well-off young men who associated with the philosopher Socrates, and it is likely that he remained in Athens during the reign of the Thirty Tyrants (404-403 BCE), the junta imposed by the Spartans after Athens' defeat in the Peloponnesian War, and that he fought against the exiled democrats as a cavalryman. On his appearance, see Plato's Theaetetus 143e, and Symposium 215a-c, 216c-d, 221d-e; Xenophon's Symposium 4.19, . Yet, unlike Plato, who stayed in Athens and founded a philosophical academy, Xenophon chose a more active life, political and military . Second, the subject matter reflects Xenophons personal experiences. Yet, he did have intimate knowledge of Achaemenid Persia and its royal family. The name Xenophon is primarily a gender-neutral name of Greek origin that means Strange Voice. Then, "the other men followed his example, and made it a sort of game, enjoying the sensation, pleasant alike to old and young, of courting danger for a moment, and then quickly escaping it. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. Xenophon. Danzig, Gabriel. Xenophon Biography - Childhood, Life Achievements & Timeline And when he had answered him, he asked him again where men were made good and virtuous. His days were likely spent in relative leisure here, and he wrote these treatises about the sorts of activities he spent time on. (iii) One should be cautious even about the dramatic dates of . More generally, Xenophon's moral posture and his conviction that proper . Both the Apology and the Memorabilia defend Socrates' character and teachings. Xenophon was one of the men selected to replace five generals seized and executed by the Persians. Thus this book is normally read as a positive treatise about Cyrus. Hellenica is a seven-book account of 411-362 in two distinct (perhaps chronologically widely separated) sections: the first (Book I and Book II through chapter 3, line 10) "completes" Thucydides (in largely un-Thucydidean fashion) by covering the last years of the Peloponnesian War (i.e., 411-404); the second (the remainder) recounts the long-term results . Xenophon - Biography - IMDb And as he did not know, he said, "Follow me, then, and learn." He died in 354 B.C. Xenophon of Athens (l. 430 to c. 354 BCE) was a contemporary of Plato and a fellow student of Socrates. Nothing is known of Xenophon's mother or whether he had any siblings. Xenophon was away on his Persian campaign during the trial and death of Socrates. Omissions? "peers") suggests, their small band (1000 when Cyrus fought the Assyrians) shared equally in the spoils of war. A History of My Times - Xenophon - Google Books to the wealthy Athenian aristocrat Gryllus, Xenophon came of age during the Peloponnesian War (431-404 b.c . Xenophon summary | Britannica Argument ensued as to how the spoils would now be split, and Cyrus enforced a meritocracy. When the stones were almost exhausted, the soldiers raced one another over the exposed part of the road", storming the fortress, which, with most of the garrison now neutralized, barely put up a fight. Also in 398, the Spartan ephors officially cleared the Ten Thousand of any previous wrongdoing (the Ten Thousand were likely a part of the investigation of Thimbron's failure at Larissa) and fully integrated the Ten Thousand into Dercylidas' army. Detailed account of Xenophon's life starts 401 BC. Xenophon c. 431 - c. 354 BC. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Anabasis and Cyropaedia flowed from the adventure of 401400; the Socratic writings stemmed from youthful association with a charismatic teacher; Hellenica arose from a personal take on the politico-military history of his times; treatises on military command, horsemanship, household management, and hunting derived from prolonged personal experience of each; Ways and Means was inspired by concern about Athenss finances and political fortunes; and Hiero may have originated in a visit to Sicily. The Ten Thousand eventually made their way into the land of the Carduchians, a wild tribe inhabiting the mountains of modern southeastern Turkey. "Xenophon and Callicratidas".
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